by Dr V. Abhiramasundaram
The Vedas, the first Sanskrit literary document available to us, contain only a few scattered references to Skanda. Skanda worship was popular during the period of purānas and itihāsas. Skanda Purāna is exclusively devoted to Skanda worship. Other purānas also throw considerable light on Skanda worship in ancient India.
The excavations of cock symbol, fragments of kāvati and vēl near Adichanallur and Tirunelveli clearly indicate that Tamils worshipped Skanda as early as 2000 B.C. References in Cankam literature in Tamil such as Puranānūru, Akanānūru, Porunarārruppatai, Paripātal, Ainkurunūru, Tirumurukārruppatai etc., substantiate this view. Murukan was considered as the Lord of Kurińci. He was known for his valour, knowledge and beauty. He was popularly known as Tamilkatavul.
by Alagappar Alagappan
In this paper, the author reveals the findings of Kaumāra devotees in India and abroad who report that the personification of Murukan's vēl, known as to devotees as Jyoti (Skt: 'light') who is the feminine principle of light while Skanda represents the masculine principle of light. Like Skanda, Jyoti also wishes to be worshipped in rūpa form. She is manifesting at this time in Kali Yuga to overcome and control evil, the author reports.
Jyoti presides over one of the six houses of Lord Skanda, namely Palamutirc cōlai which corresponds to the ajńa cakra in kundalini yoga. She is closely associated with her mother Shakti, from whose third eye she was born. This paper details Jyoti's relationship with all the members of the family of Shiva and Shakti and the underlying associations with spiritual principles and sādhana or practice. It details the circumstances under which revelations concerning Jyoti have come to the notice of her devotees in recent years.
The second half of the paper is a detailed account of the work devotees in India and America have done to promote the worship of Jyoti, particularly through the Hindu Temple Society of North America and the Aru Padai Veedu Trust Foundation. It discusses efforts to raise an ĀrupataiviĎtu temple complex in Chennai's Besant Nagar as well as plans to create a major Jyoti temple to be built at Pondicherry. Lastly, the paper surveys prescribed rituals in the worhip of Jyoti.
by Selliah Amirthalingam
Murukan worship is historically one of the most significant characteristics among the various communities of Sri Lanka in general. In particular, the worship of Murukan is crucial to historical understanding of the problems of Tamils in the hill country, where they live in accordance with the colonial economic plantation system. The arrival and survival of Tamils in the hill country, the heart of the island, has had a major impact upon the religious, social, political and economic affairs of Sri Lanka.
This study, from the historical and comparative perspective of the study of religions, articulates four ways in which the worship of Murukan is conducted in the hill country. Firstly, Murukan worship persists among Tamils in the midst of diverse crises in the new social, cultural and political conditions in the colonial plantation settings of the hill country. Secondly, the hill country Tamils, with their heritage of Murukan valipātu from South India encountered also the myth of Murukan and Valli, common to the peoples of Sri Lanka and Tamilakam in India. The prevailing mythic theme of reciprocity in the love relationship (between Murukan and Valli) reflects a situation anteceding colonialism, probably even Buddhism. Already at this distant period, constituted at Katirkāmam, Murukan's sacred place, where almost all the communities of Sri Lanka, and even from India, met. Thus the participating groups were, and still are today, made up of Hindu Tamils, Buddhists, Christians, Muslims, and Veddas -- all taking part in the festivity of Murukan.
Thirdly, the hill country represents the festivity in Murukan worship as the combination of non-agamic and an-iconic as well as the agamic and iconic forms of worship. Thus the Vēl icon, being the major common symbol Murukan worship in the hill country, leads to transcend the barriers and to build bridges among people towards the creation of a harmonious peaceful atmosphere of festival or Tiruvilā, even during periods of conflict and war.
Finally, in accordance with established evidence, Murukan worship is referred to as one of the major factors in the ongoing transformation of Buddhism and Shhaiva Hinduism.
by P. Ananthraman
In these days of agnosticism rarely people think of righteousness and divine dispensation. Man has come down from the dizzy height of spiritual superiority to moral degradation because of growing materialism. To live in peace with men and beasts, love is a potent factor that governs all living beings. The solution is Muruka bhakti, the cult of love, for this mode of worship is the noblest, easiest and best of the paths that leads to God realization.
The purpose of this study is to examine this special feature of Tamil civilization and culture. In fact the cult of love is the cult of beauty. The natural tendency of people is to love and admire beauty. The term muruku with its several connotations throws special light on beauty.
Psychological and scholastic approaches are adopted to trace Muruga bhakti as the cult of love. Through a deep and broad study of Lord Murukan in comparison with other immortal figures like Rāma, the immortal beauty (aliyā alaku) in the words of Kampan can savoured.
This study draws upon Tamil and Sanskrit texts by distinguished authors as its sources of information.
by Jeyaalaki Arunagirinathan
This paper is an analysis of the devotional and classical music approaches in Tiruppukal. The first part covers the origin of Skanda worship, its development in the Cankam Age and its culmination in the Tiruppukal songs of Arunakirinātar. It also discusses the musical forms of Tiruppukal and how they achieved wide popularity in Skanda worship.
In the second part of the paper concerns the approach of classical music including the structure of Tiruppukal songs, how they became a constituent of Karnatic music concerts, and Tiruppukal's impact upon other musical forms such as krti and kiĎrtanā. In the concluding part of the study the question ofhow these songs undergo changes when sung in different places by different singers will be analysed.
by S.R.S. Ayyar
The four purusārthas or objects of life, viz. acquisition of weath (artha), fulfilment of desires (kāma), righteous living (dharma) and salvation (moksa) are closely intertwined. The theme of this paper relates to the first object of life, i.e. the acquisition of wealth as Arunakirinātar treats the subject in his works.
Arunakirinātar did not take a fatalistic view of life. He objectively outlines the needs of the average householder although he himself is recognised as a saint. He knows full well the miseries stemming from all-destroying poverty.
The saint seeks various favours of the god including freedom form even the minutest penury, if at all he is destined to take rebirth in this world. And yet, he concedes the futility of moving heaven and earth in the quest to amass wealth.
Arunakirinātar digs at men who indulge in flattery of unfit people merely to obtain their selfish ends. Likewise he derides hypocritical sermonisers. He predicts what is in store for those who possess wealth but do not help others.
In sum, Arunakirinātar and his works serve as a beacon to the run-of-the-mill earthly beings, helping them to derive the infinite grace of Lord Murukan.
by K. Balachandran
Citamparam has long been eulogised in Tamil poetry and religious literature for its Natarāja temple. Every Shiva temple in addition to Lord Shiva and Goddess Pārvati (in Citamparam Lord Natarāja and Shivakāma Sundari) has place for their sons Ganesa (Vināyaka, Ganapati) and Murukan. Though Murukan is the youngest of the Shiva-Pārvati family, He occupies a prominent place in Hindu worship.
Scope: In Citamparam temple Lord Murukan is in seven places which is a rare feature-in six sannidhis and in a separate shrine. During the Pandian regime, Murukan was the presiding deity for kings. He was called by various names: Subrahmanya, Sanmukha, Tantāyutapāni, etc. The research is restricted to Citamparam Civan temple only.
Problem: This study has not been attempted so far. It also utilises sources which have so far not been tapped before.
Methodology: The approach is a uniquely close and critical observation of the Murukan shrines and sannidhis using first hand information collected and analysed as research data.
Sources: Though a few books about Citamparam temple are available, little is available about these shrines. Hence interviews with the diĎksitars will also be undertaken.
by M.R. Bala Ganapathi
Devotees of Murukan know that Vēl is Murukan, and Murukan is Vēl. He is Vēlan. He not only holds the Vēl, He is in the Vēl, He is the Vēl itself. Hence He is Vēlan; Vēlavan. Vēl is a symbol of jńānam or jńāna s×akti. He is Jńānakāra, i.e.. His form is jńānam (verse 28, Kantaranupūti).
Arunakirinātar in his Kantaranupūti refers to Vēl in many places. He uses the word with or without varied adjectives -- all with the single purpose of emphasising the vital function of the Vēl, the grace (arul) of Vēlan through His Vēl.
The Vēl without any adjective comes in the very first hymn, and as Vēlavan in verses 11, 17 and 48. The words ayil ('the sharp one') and ayil Vēl occur in hymns 25, 19 and 28. The expression katir Vēl (='the shining/effulgent Vēl) is used in hymns: 14, 40 and 46. Another expression with the same meaning is cutar Vēl in hymn 29. In hymns 13, 42 and 44 we find tani vel or 'Vēl absolute'. In the seventh hymn, we find vati vēl ('the beautiful and sharp Vēl, the Vēl that is full of beauty. We note pōr Vēl, the 'Vēl that fights' and vikrama Vēl ('powerful Vēl') in hymns 24, and 23, 37. In all, Vēl in some form appears 23 times in 51 hymns; no other word is repeated so many times.
Different adjectives have been used purposefully for conveying the special meanings to fit the context referred to in the particular hymns. Some questions, doubts or problems raised or suggested in the hymns are suggestively answered by the use of the Vēl without or with suitable adjectives. Contemplation reveals the purposefulness of the use of the term Vēl alone or with fitting adjectives. The Vēl or jńānam should be sharp, powerful and its brightness should drive off the darkness of ignorance, ego, evil forces and suffering.
by V. Balambal
Scope: The research deals with the six abodes of Murukan mentioned in Tirumurukārruppatai, Tiruppukal and other literary sources and brings out their social and religious implications. Murukan, the god of the kurińci (hilly) region, has his abodes on hills. This paper covers the following aspects:
Sources: Āticcanallūr excavations imply early Murukan worship. There are references to Murukan in Tolkāppiyam, Akanānūru, Kuruntokai, Kalittokai, Paripātal, Tirumurukārruppatai, Cilappatikāram, Kallātam, various purānas, Tiruppukal, Shankara's Subrahmanya bhujangam and other works.
Methodology: Historical method is followed in general scientific approach. Critical analysis is made wherever possible.
Problems: The chronological numbering of pataivitu. Why are Murukan's abodes on hills?
by M. Bala Murugan
Ancient Tamil people used spear for hunting their food. The shape of Vēl in the hands of Murukan and the spear are similar in shape and name. To prosper with hunting weapons ancient Tamils worshipped Lord Murukan. Vēlan is similar to occupational terms like pānan or tutiyan which are derived from the names of occupational implements. Lord Murukan is known as Cevvēl from the worshipping of the red spear.
Scope: The worship of Lord Murukan is quite ancient; worshipping of Vēl dates from even earlier. Later worship of Murukan and worship of Vēl were combined and performed together. The aim of this research paper is to find out how this occurred. Till now no research has been made on this and hence this attempt.
Purpose: The relationship between the name of Lord Murukan and the spear in his hand is addressed in this research.
Methodology: Taking into account the earlier researches on Vēlan Veriyātal of Cankam Age, this research assumes a social and historical approach.
Sources of information regarding Vēlan Veriyātal have been taken from Cankam literature, while the relationship between colour red and Murukan have been taken from later commentaries and modern studies.
by Vallimalai Balananda Sadhu
Scope: Among Tamil people, the most endearing facet of Lord Murukan's career is His relationship to Valli, the adopted daughter of a Vētar chieftain of ancient times who, in the eyes of many devotees, lives to this day as Lord Murukan's ideal devotee. Tradition tells us that Valli was born and grew up at Vallimalai in the Parvata Rajan hills not far from Tiruttani.
This paper examines Vallimalai and its traditions as seen and preserved by devotees of Valli or Ponki Amma as the goddess is known to her devotees today. It recounts the legend of Valli Amma as remembered at Vallimalai and examines the role Vallimalai Sri Satchidananda Swamigal played in popularising Muruka bhakti.
Methodology: The researcher has long been associated with Vallimalai and knew Vallimalai Sri Satchidananda Swamigal personally. He has learned, therefore, that only traditional Indian methodologies of bhakti yoga produce genuine results.
Sources of information: The researcher knew Vallimalai Sri Satchidananda Swamigal from early childhood. Today he is resident custodian of Vallimalai Sri Satchidananda Swamigal Tiruppukal Asramam. Years of residence in service to Pongi Amma have naturally deepened the researcher's experience and appreciation of Vallimalai as a punita pūmi and home to this day of Valli Amma. Hence, the researcher can speak as an authority on the subject of Valli and Vallimalai. In his research, however, other sources of information will also be cited, including Kacciappar's Kanta purānam and Arunakirinātar's Tiruppukal among other sources.
by Rajes Balasubramaniam
Scope: As a medical anthropologist, the author is interested in people's beliefs and practices in terms of their religion and tradition. Tamils in South India have much in common with gods and goddesses of the ancient Greek world. In particular he intends to investigate the realism and the fantasy of the image of Valli in the story of Murukan. He questions the way purānas and epics portray non-Aryans. With this research the author hopes to find the reason for the image of Valli and the philosophy behind it.
He has chosen this subject since the anthropological research done on the theme of Murukan and his two consorts is inadequate, particularly about Valli. By writing this article he hopes to encourage other people in India as well as other part of the world to do more research as Murukan worship and the rituals are interlinked with Dravidians' history and cultural heritage.
Sources of information: The author only uses various books by different authors from the West and East. He would have liked to visit those Murukan temples and meet religious experts to find about the myth of Murukan and his wives, as every temple and region has its own myth. Therefore, He employs literary research method to write his article, using the extensive collection of Indian books at the London School of Oriental and African Studies. His literary research is based on these sources and some Tamil books from India.
Purpose or problems addressed by the research: Most Tamil books about Murukan primarily speak about the religious aspects of Murukan. Evidence of any development of this myth, especially about Valli, has not been dealt with properly. He analyses this myth within the social context of Dravidian social life. This article focuses on Valli more than Teyvānai as Valli symbolises the ideology of love in Tamil context. He regards his article as a survey for more work on Murukan and his two wives.
by Dr. A Baskara Paul Pandian
Scope: The second Varakuna Pandya's inscription which is found in the Tiruccentūr Murukan temple deals with the daily worship of Lord Murukan. The aim of this paper is to study the forms of worship described in this inscription.
Problem addressed: This paper compares present forms of worship with ancient forms of worship described in the inscription. By the inscription we come to know about ancient barter-trade. Among the fourteen villages mentioned in the inscription, some villages still exist. The topic is examined from a historical perspective.
Methodology: A comparative study of the worship at present and in ancient times as mentioned in the inscription is done. This research is also a historical study. Field work is also done to gather data from the temple priests.
Sources: The primary source for this paper is the Varakuna Pandya's inscription. Other inscriptions, purānas about Tiruccentūr, Tiruccentūr temple publications, Tamil literature about Tiruccentūr, and data collected from the priests are the secondary sources.
by Carl Vadivella Belle
Scope: This paper explores the festival of Taippūcam as practiced in Kuala Lumpur and Penang, Malaysia, and outlines the unificatory themes of Murukan worship and kāvati rituals in Malaysian Hinduism.
Since World War II, Taippūcam has emerged as the most visible and powerful assertation of Hindu identity in Malaysia. The negotiation of Hindu identity has been conducted against a backdrop of ethnic/communsal pressure which permeates and politicizes all aspects of Malaysian life.
While Taippūcam in Malaysia is consciously formulated upon the mythology, traditions and modes of worship celebrated at Palani, Tamil Nadu, the processes of relocation and adaptation have endowed the festival with a significance and centrality which it lacks in India.
Taippūcam's accommodation of a range of beliefs and practices inspires barely controlled tensions as well as a tenuous concept of Hindu solidarity. This paper will argue that despite these unresolved contradictions, the festival has become the major - perhaps the sole - forum for the articulation and continued negotiation of broader Malaysian Hindu identity. Taippūcam both cncapsulates and gives expression to deeper unificatory tendencies as well as creating impulses and a momentum of its own.
This paper will argue that the centrality of Taippūcam to Malaysian Hinduism has been underscored and propelled by the increasing popularity of Murukan worship. In a nation dominated by ethnicity, Murukan has become a potent and catalytic symbol of Tamil/Dravidian identity. His wide and evolving appeal will continue to play an integral role in the formulation of a broad and distinctive Malaysian Hindu tradition.
by G. Bhaskaran
Murukan cult has been undoubtedly the pre-eminent god of Tamils all through the ages. According to the earliest Tamil grammar text, Tolkāppiyam, Cēyōn, that is Murukan was the god of kurińcit tinai or the hilly region.
The aim of this paper is to study the revival of the ancient Murukan cult after the bhakti period. Buddhism and Jainism, the immediate rival faiths of Hinduism, began to have appeal to Tamils as orthodox Hinduism paid more attention to the practice of Vedic rituals and yajńas and less to real devotion to God. The Shaiva Nāyanmārs and Vaisnava Ālvārs attempted to repulse Buddhism and Jainism and thereby to win Tamil people over to Shaivism and Vaisnavism through their songs.
With the result of the growth of bhakti propagated by the four Shaiva camayakuravars, the Murukan cult lost its charm and relevence. Thus during the Middle Ages, that is, from 7th to 13th century A.D. there was a lull in the worship of Murukan and hence there arose a need for the revival of the ancient Murukan cult.
This paper traces the origin, development and evolution of the ancient Murukan cult and also the revival of the cult after the bhakti period.
by R. Champalakshmi
Research on the history of the cult of Skanda-Murukan has tended to seek the Dravidian or more specifically the Tamil roots of the cult or to look for the Sanskritic and Tamil traits of the god. Murukan as the warrior god and the child god goes back to the early strata of Cankam texts. The Kurińcit tinai has been the main context in which he has been placed and discussion has centered around this eco-zonal and tribal background of the deity. Although Murukan has been given pride of place as the Tamil deity par excellence, his identity with the Sanskritic Skanda-Kārttikeya is often assumed to be a simultaneous phenomenon, without going into the changing contexts of his worship and the socio-economic background in the whole of Tamilakam.
The evolution of the complex mythology around the cult of Murukan from the Cankam to the period of the sthalapuranas (15th to 18th centuries AD) contains layers of myths which need to be looked at afresh, for myths do not necessarily belong to a single period or a single specific context. In the case of Murukan, they have emerged out of local traditions, localised puranic myths and folk beliefs in circulation for a long period of time and myths which got codified and elaborated upon at various points of time.
An attempt is made in this paper to discuss the universalisation of the Murukan cult and the emergence of its sacred geography, which made a tribal deity of the Cankam classics into a transcendental god as a result of the synthesis between what was essentially a local, folk or popular cult diety and the Sanskritic, Brahmanical tradition and forms of worship. The transformation of the nature landscape of the Cankam poetry to the temple landscape of the bhakti poetry was a major part of this process of synthesis.
The focus will be on the Arupataivitu or the six main centres in which Murukan (Subrahmanya) has been worshipped from the time of the post Cankam text i.e., the Tirumurukārruppatai and the expansion of agricultural activities and the emergence of a systemic agrarian order in the early medieval period (6th to 13th centuries AD), when the crystallisation of the Murukan cult as a Skanda-Kārttikeya cult and as one of the most significant aspects of the Tamil Shaiva tradition took place. Iconographic development of the deity and epigraphic records from the six pataivitus and the later sthalapurānas provide important insights into this evolution.
by A. Chandra Bose
Murukan, a traditional god of Tamil society, is also known as Kārttikēya, Subrahmanya or Skanda in North India. Generally the image of Subrahmanya, the seated figure, is either in padmāsana or on a peacock and standing in some other places of South India, especially in Tamil Nadu. Usually the cock, peacock and nāga are represented in sculpture as the vehicles of Lord Subrahmanya.
A few representations, however, depict an elephant as the vehicle of Subrahmanya in the temples of Kannanūr in Putukkōttai district and Cuvāmimalai in Tańcāvūr district, etc. In this paper an attempt is made to trace out why the sculptural images of elephant came to Subrahmanya as his vehicle and why the elephant vehicle is absent in temples after 10th-12th century A.D. in Tamil Nadu.
by Poorna Chandra Jeeva
Scope: The worship of Kanta-Murukan predates the Cankam age. It is even more primitive than the Indus Valley civilization. The Indus script shows evidence of this worship. The Indus script is Dravidian. The Tamil-Brahmi or Tamili helps to decipher the Indus script.
Problem: Tamili is an alphabetic writing system developed from the Phoenician script. The Indus script was a logosyllabic and the gap period was 1500 years between these two systems without connection between them. The Indus script continued as a writing system even after the period of the Indus civilization. The changing of the Indus script into Tamili was superficial; the basic signs were unchanged.
Son god of the Indus civilisation: He is a young male - child (4088, 4664, 2022), the lord of the star pleiades (1103, 2143) belonging to the day of that star (2143). He is the holder of the ayil, the spear (2365, 2417) and the young lord of learning (1158), young valiant (4773). He is the god of the temple mountain (2290), the divine owner of the peacock and wild cock (2365, 2517).
Ayilan - Vēlan is the son of Civan. The goddess Vanā Illi is the divine wife of the god (2205, 4270). The goddess is the mother of Kantan (1410) and the mother of the god of the star pleiades (2599) Kantani (1410). She belongs to Kantan. Kal-kan-kan+tu = kantu = stone or wooden pillar representing a deity worshipped. Kantan = the lord who lives in the kantu.
These similarities suggest that the compound nature of the integrite existed among the contemporary civilizations in the ancient world. And the Murukan cult was a common religious system of primitive civilizations of that age. The Indus writing system was a well developed writing system of that era. The Indus Script indicates there was the worship of Kanta-Murukan. It is the direct proof of the written document of the people of the Indus Valley.
by D. Chandrasekaran
Abodes of Lord Murukan in Tamil Nadu are so many, each excelling in its own way. Of those, Virālimalai has the pride of its own which no other abode of Lord Murukan can claim, the pride of having been promulgated by Lord Murukan Himself to His unremitting servitor Saint Arunakirinātar in a dream that Virālimalai is the place where He abides! Thus informed, Saint Arunakirinātar was summoned to Virālimalai by Lord Murukan.
Wonderous is this that the Almighty chose to promulgate that His living place was a hill called Virālimalai! The mountain is therefore known to be the beloved of Lord Murukan which makes Virālimalai special to all Murukan Atiyārs.
While for the first time St. Arunakirinātar visited the place he was in his youth as can be inferred from the Virālimalai Tiruppukal songs sung by him. He sang 16 Tiruppukal songs at Virālimalai connoting that he sang them as if he was offering sixteen upāsara to Lord Murukan in commoration of the inward Light illumined by Lord Murukan on his advent at Virālimalai.
In one of the Tiruppukal songs, he mentions that the boulders on the hill are the forms of yogis of unfathomable age strewn about in penance and the peacocks strolling around the hill select those boulders to dance upon in praise of the Lord Murukan. There are many minute details strewn in the sixteen Virālimalai Tiruppukal songs which loom large as great metaphysical truths for anyone desiring to relish them.
by Dr K. Chellappan
In Murukan, a religio-cultural archetype and aesthetic symbol of Tamils, there is a reconciliation of opposites such as heaven and earth, love human and divine (Valli and Tēyvānai) supernatural and natural, religion and art. The worship of Murukan can be traced back to the matriarchal period of Dravidian civilisation when it had links with Sumeria and Greece. Right from the beginning his worship has been linked with dance and song. The purpose of this paper is to trace the evolution of Murukan as a symbol of Tamil culture and aesthetic symbol.
Even though Tolkāppiyam describes him as the god of kurińci, he evolves into a symbol of the entire Tamil ethos signified by akam and puram as a warrior god of love. From the days of Tirumurukārruppatai we find an interplay between the religio-cultural and aesthetic symbolism. The very form of Tirumurukārruppatai shows an interpenetration of the bardic and devotional styles and the use of secular form for a religious purpose. In Paripātal the Murukan cult is linked with akam theme unique to Tamil culture.
In Cilappatikāram this anthropomorphic god is linked not only with love (akam) and war (puram), but with fertility and creativity. The whole epic is an extension of the dance of the hillsmen who identify Kannaki and Valli. This dance shows an affinity with Dionysus who is also the god of drama and emotional release. The link between Vēlan Veriyātal in Kunrakkuravai and the Greek dance of Kouras in which the god leaps to perform the ritual for the fertility of the land is significant.
In the mediaeval period, metaphysical symbolism was given more importance in Purānas. In the modern period Murukan has been rediscovered as a symbol of Tamil cultural identity. He is associated with humanism as well as Muttamil. Subramaniya Bharati relates Vēlan to Agni, the heroic form of Atman, and says that in the Vedas, Agni takes two forms: one being Kumāra Devasenāpati and the other Devaguru. Likewise, he relates the same to the creative fire in the cave of the soul (Akkini Kuńcu) as well as imagination and Tamil ('Kuyil Song'). One can see a link between the Tamil Renaissance celebrating naturalism, humanism and Tamil self-identity with the revival of Murukan cult.
by J. Chemen
Scope: Indian immigrants who migrated to Mauritius, mostly as indentured labourers, during the period of European colonisation belonged to different linguistic (Bhojpuri, Urdu, Tamil, Telugu and Marathi) and ethnic groups. But today, although a gradual shift or loss is noted in the language among the present generation of the Indian immigrants, yet they maintain their ethno-cultural identity through day-to-day lifestyle and various religious and cultural activities.
Objective: The main objective of this paper is to study the various socio-cultural aspects of kāvati festivals in Mauritius. In the process of above analysis attempts are made to show how kāvati continues to be a strong ethnic parameter for Tamil ethnic identity in Mauritius although the festivals allow free inter-group mingling.
Methodology: The researcher is an active member of the ethnic group taken for study and this facilitates participant observation study. The researcher participates actively in the kāvati festivals of Mauritius since a number of years. But this study was mainly based upon kāvati celebrations of 1997 and 1998. In addition to interviews, tape recordings, and transcripts of conversations, songs and prayers, a formal questionnaire was administered to determine attitudes and opinions.
The existing architectural structure of Tamil temples in Mauritius is, no doubt, the evolution of the thatched tent forms of kōvils erected by the early Tamil immigrants. Most of these kovils originally accomodated only goddess Amman; Very few temples were Murukan based. But today Lord Murukan is present in almost all the kōvils of Mauritius. Out of the 125 kōvils in Mauritius, a hundred celebrate taippūcam kāvati in the Tamil month of Tai. There is practically no difference in the way kāvati festivals are celebrated in Mauritius.
A strong ethnic parameter Kāvati facilitates intra-group mingling among the Tamil community. The use Tamil language in prayers, songs and speeches suggests that kāvati is a factor that contributes to the survival of Tamil language in Mauritius.
A cross cultural festival Kāvati in Mauritius has become a national cross cultural festival. Devotees of different ethnic groups participate in the festival side by side with Tamils. Association with Hindi speakers is observed and no one can deny the participation of Christians of black origin in the festival. One Christian respondent taking kāvati said: "In our religion, we don't have all this. I find it a pleasure. Although I am a Christian, yet my heart is Tamil."
by Alexander Dubianski
It has been acknowledged by many scholars that at least some roots of Skanda lie in the mythology of proto-Indian civilization. The image of a young warrior for instance is clearly seen on several seals. Besides there is evidence that the number six which is characteristic of Skanda played a significant role in astronomical notions of proto-Indians. A six-rayed figure on two seals is supposed to be a symbolical representation of a year, consisting of six reasons. Later materials, especially epic, confirm the connection of Skanda with the beginning of a year, thus making him a protector-deity of a year. Widely known solar associations of Skanda and his red and golden symbolical colours are also worth noting.
Tamil Murukan is also clearly a solar deity. In calendar terms he may represent the bright half of the year. But if we interpret the myth of his war with the demon as a calendar myth (Murukan and Cūr representing accordingly bright and dark parts of a year, otherwise hot and rainy seasons). We see that Murukan, having overcome Cūr, becomes the sole protector of the year. This is in accordance with the fact that Murukan is seen as commanding the central position, which is symbolically represented by his act of cleaving his enemy in two (Cūr and the Kirauńca-mountain). An interesting parallel to this tendency to occupy central position is found in a akam poetry (kurińcit-tinai): the hero, who represents Murukan on his level, comes to tryst at midnight (natunāl) -- a detail which is considered by Tolkāppiyam as characterstic of kuruńci poetry.
The Marriage of Murukan to Valli is a myth symbolising the union of male and female principles. The idea is also expressed by way of vegetative (the marriage of vēnkai and mango trees) and astronomical (the union of sun and moon) symbolism. The latter has a striking parallel in the Mahābhārata: it is said that before Skanda was born the sun and moon united.
S.A.K. Durga
Scope of the research: This study concerns the forms of South Indian music in which Murukan is conceptualised in the texts of the songs and also His abstract form as Nādamaya Rūpa -- the Rāga Sanmukhapriya.
Source of information: These include texts of the musical forms, Tamil and Sanskrit literary works on Lord Skanda and the music compositions themselves. Being a musician herself, she will demonstrate in a live presentation.
In the classical music of South India, the text of the musical forms are religious in praise of various gods and goddesses. There are marvelous songs in praise of Skanda-Murukan in Sanskrit, Tamil and Telugu. It can be said that among the sanmatha concepts established by Adi Sankara, Kaumāram is most popular in Tamil Nadu. South Indian classical music portrays Skanda in various aspects such as bāla or child, guru or teacher, nāyaka or hero or lover and above all as the embodiment of nāda or musical sound since He is the source of music being Himself in Pranava Rūpa.
Many of the composers of Carnatic music have been blessed by Lord Murukan to compose their music. Amongst those composers, Muthuswami Dikshitar is one of the greatest. Arunakirinātar exclusively composed songs on Murukan as Tiruppukal. Annāmalai Rettiyār composed the kāvati cintu form of music exclusively on Lord Murukan. This paper will present a critical study on the Sanskrit compositions which include different musical forms sung in Carnatic music such as varnam, kirttanai, patam, kriti, etc.
by M.H.A. Gaffar and Patrick Harrigan
Scope: For centuries, pious Muslim saints and pilgrims as well as learned scholars have regarded the sylvan shrine of Kataragama as Khadir-gama, i.e. 'the home of al-Khadir', 'the Green Man' of Islamic and pre-Islamic lore whom commentators identify with the mysterious teacher of Moses described as 'one of Our servants' in Sura Khalf, v. 58 of the Holy Qur'ān. Said in Persian tradition to have also been a close associate of Iskandar or Alexander the Great, al-Khadir is believed to have discovered the Ma'ul Hayat or Water of Life. He wanders the earth even today and often intervenes in the lives of Muslims and non-Muslims alike as a mysterious agent of divine justice and mercy.
This research examines the Islamic tradition of al-Khadir against the background of Sri Lanka's other religious communities about Kataragama as a place of exceptional sanctity. It is significant that Sri Lankan Sūfis or mystically-inclined Muslims generally consider the spirit of Kataragama (Skanda-Murukan) to be identical with al-Khadir, the mysterious servant of Allah.
Purpose: Kataragama has been studied by scholars of religion as well as sociologists and anthropologists. Yet to date of this attention has focused upon Hindu traditions and, to a lesser extent, Sinhala Buddhist traditions. Perhaps due to pervasive prejudice slanted against Islam, no study has ever devoted more than passing mention to Islamic traditions of Kataragama. The present work, therefore, breaks fresh ground in the sense of bringing to light Islamic traditions of Kataragama.
Methodology: This study assumes that religious beliefs and practices are best appreciated in terms of the religious traditions in question. Christian or Hindu or Buddhist religious issues are best resolved by Christians, Hindus and Buddhists respectively. And yet, appreciation of the traditions of one religion may shed light upon the mysteries of other religions. Kataragama is a place of mystery and sanctity for peoples of three major world religions. As such, its Islamic traditions deserve to be studied and understood on their own terms.
Sources of information: The principal researcher, al-Haj M.H.A. Gaffar, as well as being a prominent businessman and leader of the Muslim community of Galle, is the sole trustee and custodian of the Kataragama Mosque and Shrine and its traditions. He hails from a family of maulavis with a heritage of respect for learned Islamic traditions including that of al-Khadir.
Besides drawing upon the living traditions of Kataragama as articulated by al-Haj Gaffar and others, this study draws from the Holy Qur'ān as well as the writings of learned Islamic commentators in Arabic and epic poems like Iskandar Nāma and Shāh Nāma in Persian. The sole booklet published about the shrine, Kataragama Mosque and Shrine, is cited as well as Dutch and British colonial records and the writings of art historian Ananda K. Coomaraswamy.
by N. Gangadharan
The purānas in Sanskrit are the source for understanding Indian culture, since they have assimilated in the course of many centuries so much material relating to Indian culture. The innumerable legends in the purānas have influenced poets for drawing materials for their compositions. For example, the great poet Kālidāsa named one of his poetic composition as Kumārasambhavam which deals with the events prior to the birth of Kumāra.
The legends in the Purānas describe the birth of Kumāra (referred to also as Kārttikeya, Devasenāpati, Guha and Sanmukha), his leadership of the celestials against Tāraka, his significant role in the combat against the three demons of Tripura and some minor episodes. The reference to him as the consort of Valli seems to be absent in the early Sanskrit Purānic tradition. It is intended to examine these legends in their historic development.
by N. Gnanakumaran
This paper analyses the concept of Murukan in view of the Tamil tradition, especially the Kanta Purānam and Saiva Siddhānta philosophy. The Saiva Siddhānta philosophy gets prominent place in Hinduism, particularly in South India and Sri Lanka. The fourteen texts of Meykanta Sāstras are the basic literature of Shaiva Siddhānta. Among these Meykanta Tēvar's Sivajńāna Pōtam stands out and its philosophy is considered as the most closely reasoned religious philosophy in India.
We shall discuss similarities between the theme of Kanta Purānam and the Shaiva Siddhānta philosophy with regard to a number of concepts, namely God, grace, creation and destruction, the nature of souls, the consequence of bad deeds, the final goal, etc. The epic Kanta Purānam of Kacciyappa Civācāriyar is said to be based upon the first six kandas of the Sivarahasya Kanda, the first of twelve sections of the Sankara Mahātmya.
Kanta Purānam narrates the story of Lord Murukan who broke the power of the asuric forces under Cūr and liberated the devas. Saiva Siddhānta ideas are subtly embedded throughout the story of Kanta Purānam. This paper brings out this aspect in detail. It is notable that the followers of Saiva Siddhānta in Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka are mainly the devotees of Lord Murukan. The traditional Jaffna scholar the late Kanapatip Pillai rightly pronounced that Jaffna Tamils follow the Kanta Purāna Kalācāram tradition.
R. Ponnu S Goundar, MD
During Taippūcam and Pankuni Uttirātam festivals, Murukan devotees in large number all over Fiji gather to offer kāvati. Now especially after the military coup, Indians living in USA, Canada, England, Australia and New Zealand come to Fiji to Nadi temple to fulfil vows on grand annual festival occasions.
Besides the large Nandi Murukan temple there are smaller temples dedicated to Murukan at Tagi, Koronubu, and Navua. There are also a number of small privately owned firms over Fiji in the name of Murukan.
While devotion to Murukan is deep and evergreen, the intellectual understanding about Murukan is lacking because Tamil is a dying language in Fiji. However Fijian devotees do publish small booklets in English for the benefit of the younger generation.
by Patrick Harrigan
Scope: Sixty years ago, the All-India Oriental Conference published in its proceedings an article by N. Gopala Pillai entitled Skanda: The Alexander Romance in India. In it Gopala Pillai argued that the Indian wargod Skanda is none other than the historical Alexander the Great (4th century BC) deified. His loosely-reasoned hypothesis, based upon circumstantial evidence and broad linguistic and mythological similarities, cast the entire issue into disrepute. He argues, for instance, that the Greek name Alexander entered West Asian languages as al-Sikandar or Iskandar, which in turn was rendered into Indian languages as Skanda the wargod. His hypothesis has met with scholarly rebuke ever since.
This study surveys historical evidence from the career of Alexander the Great and then discusses how the historical Alexander of Macedonia evolved over the centuries into the al-Sikandar or Iskandar of pan-Asian legend and mythology, including scripture like the Holy Qur'ān. An entire genre of epic literature arose known as the Alexander Romance which was immensely popular across much of Asia and which in turn had an impact upon geographically-distant oral and literary traditions such as that of the Quest for the Holy Grail of Western tradition.
Problems addressed: The Alexander Romance is a classic instance of the diffusion of mythic motifs and archetypes across great spans of time and space. Considered in this light, history is not mythology but it is a form of literature that gives rise to other works of oral and written literature. Alexander, Iskandar and Skanda survive in human memory as literary traditions which may be profitably analysed and understood as parallel or intertwining streams of literature.
Methodology: Gopala Pillai's early attempt to understand Skanda and the Alexander Romance raised a fascinating and long-ignored subject, namely: How do myths and legends arise and what happens when they cross geographical, linguistic and cultural boundaries? By examining Skanda, Iskandar and the Alexander Romance not as history per se but as a living stream of evolving legend and literature, this study restricts itself to issues and methods amendable to literary criticism.
Sources of information: Beginning with Gopala Pillai's 1937 article, this study re-examines the historical, linguistic, mythological and literary evidence. Some fresh insights emerge from the writings of scholars of religion and art history. Scriptures including the Holy Qur'an, the Persian epic Iskandar Nāma, and Indian epics and purānas are also cited, along with the writings of modern scholars of religion and art history.
by Francoise L'Hernault
Murukan is a subsidiary deity and also a god elevated to the status of a supreme deity. The assumption of this paper is that beyond these two positions, it appears through the representations, the temple lay-outs and the cultic plane that the god has to be considered mainly as a kind of avatāra.
This interpretation is based on extensive field-work not only in Murukan temples but also in other Saivite temples. The paper will be illustrated by some twenty slides.
by D. Dennis Hudson
Since both Skanda and Christ are divine and heroic figures worshipped by many as a father's son, this paper begins an exploration of what that means for their respective worshipers. Guiding the exploration will be the ancient Indian idea that the man is reborn through the woman as son, and when he looks at his son, he sees himself as in a mirror; those who see and venerate the son thereby see and venerate the father.
What emerges when we apply that idea to Skanda, the son of Rudra-Shiva, and to Christ, the son of Y-H-W-H ('Lord of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob')? How are they born? How do they mature? What are their heroic deeds? If, to paraphrase Vyāsa, the glory of Skanda and of Christ is to 'remove the defilement of the Kali Yuga,' then how are they believed to do it and with what results?
Since it is only a beginning study, this paper will focus on early textual sources, e.g. the Brāhmanas, the Mahābhārata, early Tamil poetry, the Christian Bible, apocryphal writings, and the early Church Fathers.
Intended by the topic is a study of the story and thought about each figure as presented in each religion, which will be an exercise in thinking across religions and cultures. In this approach, the researcher distinguishes between Christ and Jesus: the former is the statement of faith about who the man Jesus was, while the latter gives his name and dates him (i.e. died ca. 29 CE). "Christ" as part of cosmic myth (even as 'warrior') more nearly parallels 'Murukan' than does 'Jesus' as part of history.
The story of Christ has received developments in Christianity outside of the Bible in an amount of detail and variation that parallels the stories about Murukan. The question of ritual observances also emerges, but there may not be enough time to plunge into those fascinating matters. The scholar interested in sketching out how those traditions of story, thought, and ritual parallel each other and how in those parallels can be seen both similarities and differences.
by S.S. Janaki
Skanda-Kumāra is generally considered as the son of the divine parents Shiva and Pārvati. He is known from varied Sanskrit texts from the ancient to the present times under varied names including Kārttikeya, Vishacirc;kha, Guha, Senāpati, Sanmukha and Saravanabhava. Some of the terms like Kārttikeya (son of Krttikā (goddesses) and Saravanabhava (born in a thicket of reeds) clearly describe the god through their own etymology and simple legends.
Amongst the god's names, 'Skanda' and 'Subrahmanya' are crucial to understand the symbolism and evolution of the deity's concept and its worship (upāsana) in diverse ways as suited to the mental attitude (ruci) and qualification (adhikāra) of the devotees. In the present paper the references to Skanda and Subrahmanya as occurring in ancient Sanskrit literature including Yajur, Sāma and Atharva Vedas, Chāndogya Upanisad, Rāmāyana, Mahābhārata, and Skanda Purāna, are collected and critically studied.
In the final analysis it is shown that the concept and worship of Subrahmanya is distinct from that of his elder brother Ganesha or Vighneshvara. For Subrahmanya is conceived at both the levels, namely, in his iconographical mūrti-form (sakala) and in the pure absolute state (niskala). In the niskala symbolism, he is said to be on par with or sometimes, even higher than Siva.
by Saba Jayarajah
The concept of kunrutōrātal is a synthesis of Tamilian devotion, social dynamics and dance matured in the minds of Tamil mystic poets. Murukan thus conceived as the dancer integrates the various social dimensions of the Tamils and promotes devotional involvement.
Like Lord Siva, Lord Murukan is also considered as a cosmic dancer who performs the five eternal activities, viz. production (pataittal), maintenance (kāttal), destruction (alittal), embodiment (arulal) and concealment (maraittal). Kunrutōrātal is a unique symbol uniting the different strata of the Tamil population and their devotional thoughts. Social and geographical integration is considered to be the core of the concept of kunrutōrātal.
by N. Jayavidhya
In Kaumāra or Murukan cult, music has been recognised as one of the forms of worship. It has been said that Murukan worship has begun in the Cankam Age. For this we have the reference of Vēlan Veriyātal. That ancient veriyātal evolved into Murukan worship and then it was converted into agamic worship.
There are many paths to worship God. But music is the easiest and the most pleasant path to reach Him. Music was an important medium of propagation of bhakti schools. There are two margas in music to attain God. They are jńāna mārga and kirtana mārga. Kirtana mārga is easier within the reach of the common man.
There are many literary works which concern Murukan worship, as for example inTolkāppiyam, Tirumurukārruppatai, Kuruntokai, Paripātal, Kalittokai and Cilappatikāram. There are many verses in praise of Lord Murukan. Besides these works, Arunakiri's Tiruppukal, Vallalār's Teyvamanimālai and Kavi Kuńcara Bharath's Skanda Purāna Kirtanas are also sung in praise of Lord Murukan. Also there is folk literature which defines Murukan worship in their own style. Not only in literature but also in folk musical forms like cintu, kummi, etc., we find forms of Murukan worship.
Since the 19th century there have been many saint-composers and musicians who have developed Murukan worship through music. Some notable examples are Annamalai Reddiar, Papanasam Sivam, Kotiswara Iyer, Bharathiar, Periyasami Tooran and so on. This article explains and expresses how patavarnam, kirtana, tillāna and kāvati cintu illustrate Murukan worship and its development.
by Raju Kalidos
The epithet Skanda-Murukan is self-evident of the two streams of iconographical data, available in Sanskrit and Tamil.
A number of scholars (V.S. Agrawala, T.A. Gopinatha Rao, H. Krishnasastri, J.N. Banerjea, K.K. Kurukar, B.N. Sharma, Upendra Thakur et al.) have summarised the Sanskritic sources from a study of the following works: Kumārasambhava, Raghuvamsha, the epics (Mahābhārata and Rāmāyana), Brhatsamhita, Visnudharmottara Purāna, Rūpamandana, Matsya Purāna, Mahābhāsya, Amarakosa, Mrcchakatika, Kāshyapiya, Shilapasamgraha, Supra bhedāgama, and the āgamas (e.g. Amshumadbhedāgama, Uttara-Kāmikāgama, Suprabhedāgama, Pūrva-Kāranāgama) and the Kumāratantra. The classical Tamil sources and folk motifs have been examined by Kamil Veith Zvelebil, David Dean Shulman and the present author. Flashes of insight appear through a thorough study of the following Tamil works: Tolkāppiyam, Narrinai, Kuruntokai, Akanānūru, Puranānūru, Maturaikkāńci, Pattinappālai, Kurińcippāttu, Tirumurukārruppatai, Porunarārruppatai, Paripātal, the twin epics (Cilappatikāram and Manimēkalai) and the Tamil bhakti examination of the monuments and folk thoughts. To unravel the mysteries behind the regional ideas and their transformation in art a systematic attempt has to be undertaken. The temple cars of Tamil Nadu and temples of the Nāyaka period constitute a class of their own in this respect. The canon and corpus, besides popular literature and folk data serve to solve the artistic riddles.
The present study deals with the rare motifs in the iconography of Skanda-Murukan and tries to evaluate them within the context of Indian art history.
Examination of the iconographic pieces with reference to popular and folk sources add a new dimension to the iconography of Skanda-Murukan.
by Thilagawathi Kanagaretnam
Murukan is often called Kaliyuga Varada (Bestower of boons in Kali Yuga) or Kali Yugak Katavul (God of Kali Yuga). This paper underscores the justifications for calling Murukan the God of this Kali Yuga.
Points for the justification will be drawn from the implied meaning of the usual form of Lord Murukan and related puranic episodes about Him. His special attributes and episodes will be analysed to see how Lord Murukan is associated with attributes and characteristics which are specifically required to fulfill the requirements of modern people.
Peoples' attitudes, aspirations, tastes and expectations change with the times; this is because people tend to become more advanced in all fields in materialistic society, thus becoming more sophisticated in their needs, tastes and standard of living. Nevertheless at a certain stage of their life, they start searching for spiritual component.
This paper makes an attempt to show how Murukan is specifically associated with those attributes and qualities to suit the attitudes and fulfill the aspirations of the people of Kali Yuga. Existing literature such as Kanta Purānam, Tirumurukārruppatai and others will be cited.
by S.N. Kandaswamy
The Paripātal is one of the super anthologies of Cankam period. In its present form it consists of 22 poems of different dimensions in the metrical form known as Paripātal. However, the learned editor Dr. U.V.S. exhumed from the commentaries of Tamil classics more poems and fragmentary pieces which, in his opinion, belonged to the original text, and published them separately as an annexure. Most of the poems are ancient specimens of devotional lyrics addressed to Tirumāl and Cevvēl, an epithet of Murukan, while others express love themes against the backdrop of the beautiful surroundings of Vaiyai and Maturai. Thus, it is the earliest available Tamil classic, wherein spiritualism and sensuality are coupled with each other.
The present study on the cult of Murukan is essentially based on the rich materials, enshrined in the eight poems (5, 8, 9, 14, 17, 18, 19, 21) on Cevvēl. The indigenous and foreign origin of the myths and legends associated with Murukan, the concept of the incarnation of Sivakumāra, His benign and heroic deeds and His spiritual supremacy form the central theme of discussion in this paper.
The glorification of Tirupparankunram, the hill abode of Murukan, modes of worship, the expression of devotion of different stratas of His devotees and similar theological aspects are also studied. Though Tamils, in general, prayed to the Lord for material benefits, the most evolved souls aspired for a supreme life devoid of hedonistic pleasure. Some of the basic principles of metaphysics such as the concept of God and soul, doctrine of karma, means of liberation and eternal bliss as indicated in the poems are explored. It is heartening to note that the poet who extolled Tirumāl in poems 3 and 4 of the Paripātal has also glorified Cevvēl in poem 5 of the same text. Similarly, some of the poets with deep knowledge of Tamil musical tradition have set tune to poems on both the gods under reference, thus revealing the absence of religious animosity and the presence of toleration and harmonious understanding, a special hallmark of the Paripātal.
Some poems on Cevvēl have exciting and interesting love themes to exemplify the Tamil concept of kalavu (pre-marital love) and karpu (marital love) associated with Murukan and His consorts Valli and Teyvānai. The poets followed closely the Tolkāppiyam tradition in depicting such love themes, though they exhibited their talent in introducing some innovative feature, which are significant, providing aesthetic joy.
by A. Kandiah
A descriptive account of Paripātal is given at the outset. It is pointed out that a number of poems in Paripātal though categorized as invocatory are different from the usual invocatory addressees.
The presence of several poems in praise of both Tirumāl and Murukan shows that the authors of these were free from sectarian feelings.
The poet Nallantuvanār is revealed in Paripātal as a poet of Nature and of the theme of love.
The fifth poem of the collection by Katuvan Ilaveyinanār gives a lengthy account of the birth of Murukan which is not to be found in any other poem in such detail.
Some of the poets deal with the themes of love and married life in relation with Murukan, Valli and Teyvānai. Kunrampūtanār speaks of the great sorrow felt by Teyvānai at the time of the marriage of Murukan with Valli. The poet then goes on to depict the fight that ensued between the companion of Valli and the attendant of Teyvānai.
The poet Nappannanār presents the two, Teyvānai and Valli as representing the heaven and the earth. Murukan loves both the realms and this is the meaning of his having two wives.
The treatment of the love theme in devotional poems is not the same in Paripātal as in Tēvāram. Love situations as found in Akam poetry have been introduced into the body of Paripātal poems while addressing god.
In Paripātal emphasis is laid on God's grace, love and righteousness (Aram). This is evident from poem no.5 which praises these three in the place of wealth, gold and enjoyment.
The introduction of love theme in the context of devotional writing occurs for the first time in Paripātal. Saiva and Vaishnava saints of later times developed this into a form in which God is addressed as the great lover by the devotee who regards himself as a woman yearning for Him.
by S. Kanmani
Scope: This research paper deals with the Murukan cult present in the epic Cilappatikāram. The author Ilankōvatikal, who is identified as a Jain, provides much information about the temples of various gods not only in the major cities of the kingdom but also in the other significant temple towns.
Problem the research addresses: Though there has been research done on the story, subject matter, historical details and the artistic supremacy of the author and his presentation; no research was done about the Murukan cult in the Cilappatikāram to date. Information about the Murukan cult in Cilappatikāram has not been studied before. Kunrak kuravai, a folk song and dance dealing with Murukan cult, has not been analysed. So the purpose of this research paper is to analyse the details about the Murukan cult prevailing in the Tamil kingdom during the days of Ilankōvatikal's writing of Cilappatikāram .
Methodology: The traditional descriptive approach is followed. The major components are:
Sources of information: The Cilappatikāram serves as the primary source. Secondary sources are the literature of the Cankam period and the epic Manimēkalai, the counterpart of Cilappatikāram.
by M. Kannan
Scope: This paper focuses on the strong conviction of those who have taken a vow neither to worship Lord Murukan, nor to be called themselves by any name of Murukan nor to name their children after him. The paper focuses on the custom and traditions of rural people who have kept such practices for a very long time.
Problem the research addresses: The people belonging to Kallar community living in Ucilampatti in Madurai district are strong in their conviction and follow certain long-practised customs of neither worshipping Murukan nor naming themselves as Murukan, nor naming their children after him because they think that the god has not done any good to their community; instead they believe the god has betrayed the community and done harm to the community's people. They take it as the long-practised custom of their locality.
Methodology: This research paper includes explanatory points, evaluation and comparative analysis pertaining to the research problem.
Source of Information: The primary sources of this research problems are extracted from direct discussion with people and from news reports. The secondary sources are published books, articles, newspaper reports and other related sources.
by R. Kannan
Palani is a sacred site whose icon of Swāmi Tandāyudhapāni was installed by Siddhar Bhogar. Every year during Taippūcam and Pankuni Uttiram devotees come to Palani by foot on pādayātra$. The devotees face many problems and demands in daily life. Seeking relief, they make offerings to Lord Murukan. Pādayātra$ serves to promote and maintain unity among rural peoples. It also has social and religious significance.
The researcher has undertaken a survey of one hundred pādayātra$ pilgrims to Palani during Taippūcam and Pankuni Uttiram to ascertain details such as their reasons for undertaking the pilgrimage by foot, the kinds of offerings they offer and the kinds of boons they ask from Palani Āntavar.
by J.G. Kannappan
Shaiva Siddhānta is as ancient as the origin of humanity. Siddhānta emanated from the Dravidian population and especially from the Tamil-speaking population. Shaiva Siddhanta is totally social-oriented for the welfare of humanity. Vallalār, N®ānacampantar, Tirumūlar, Tāyumānavar, Tirunāvukkaracar and others spoke of love as the incarnation of Almighty and declared that this might bring peace and prosperity to humanity.
This cult is depicted in the form of Lord Shiva and His son Skanda. In reading the scriptures pertaining to Lord Murukan as narrated by the lady poet Avvaiyār, it is said that His knowledge and wisdom are associated with total health. It is the way towards the eternal bliss of divinity and serenity. The World Health Organisation (WHO) protrayal of a philosophy of 'total health by 2000 AD' is the forecast made by Shaiva philosophers through Lord Murukan's personification and declaration.
Complete health is of paramant importance for peace and prosperity of society, so that people can devote their full mind for devotion and salvation of the soul. Hence, the healing art of Lord Vaittisvaran is also respected in Shaiva Siddhānta. Lord Murukan in His iconography, prayers and His own command aims for the perfect body and pure soul of human beings.
by Vel Karttikeyan
The aim of the paper is to depict Murukan as viewed by Civappirakācar. The appearance of Murukan, his teaching of pranava, his embodying of Civākama and his bestowing of Mukti are studied in this paper. Further there is a comparative study of Civappirakācar and Kumarakuruparar in their approach to Murukan.
by K. Kathiresan
Scope of the Research: This paper attempts to reconstruct the worship of Lord Murukan and the features of the proto stage.
It also aims to bring out the socio-economic backgrounds which are responsible for the change in the folk pattern of the worship to the institutionalised form of worship.
Problem of the research addresses: The worship of Lord Murukan by the Tamils today is deeply influenced by the Aryan tradition which has changed the native style of worship into a highly artificial and institutionalized mode. This change has come about because of the impact of Sanskritization and the socio-economic changes. In spite of this deculturisation which has taken place, still some elements of the native Tamil worship could be found sporadically in South India.
If those elements are gathered together and reconstructed as per the principles of reconstruction, this could lead to the original native unadulterated form of worship of Lord Murukan.
Research Methodology: Methodology of this research is based on the principles of reconstruction, the historical factors that led to the deculturisation of the native worship. A comparative study of two different cultures will also be attempted to bring out the transformations that have taken place over a period of time.
Source of information: Field work study, interviews with eminent Progithas and data collected from the devotees will form the primary sources for this paper. Books, articles and theses on Lord Murukan will form the secondary sources for the research paper.
P.S.S. Krishnamurthi
God's descent to the earth is known as avatāram. An avatāram may embody the entire essence of God or it may be a partial manifestation of it. Murukan who took birth expresses the whole of the divine nature.
The Tamil people have always worshipped Murukan as the God of Beauty, wisdom and protective power.
Murukan's spear is a symbol of spiritual knowledge. He wields it to destroy the evils of hatred and hostility. Cūran who opposed him is the principle of Ego. In his ignorance of truth he sought power over the entire universe. He treated Murukan as a mere kid. After the battle between them was over and Cūran had been defeated, Murukan did not destroy him. He blessed him with enlightenment and took him under his own divine protection.
In this age of bitter enmities and conflicts of all kinds, this teaching of the principle of forgiving even the worst of enemies is of greatest importance.
by Gauri Parimoo Krishnan
Murukan worship in Singapore can be traced back to the mid-19th century soon after the first Cettiyārs landed in Singapore with a Vēl from their home in Tamil Nadu. Used as a protective charm during the sea voyage this Vēl was soon erected under a tree and begun to be worshipped. Soon a temple was built as early as 1859 on the original site where it stands even today with slight modifications, at the Tank Road. Popularly known as the Cettiyār's temple it is officially named Tantāyutapāni temple.
The practice of celebrating Taippūcam is unique to Singapore and Malaysia where Cettyiārs and non-Cettyiārs celebrate different rituals. In recent years North Indian and Chinese devotees have also joined in. The cult of Murukan and the vow to follow the asceticism involved in bearing the most complex kāvatis are the two main foci which will be discussed in this paper. The showmanship and personal courage to bear pain in display of one's dedication to Murukan are also discussed. An exploration of the forces driving the Cettyiārs and the non-Cettyiārs in the celebration of this festival is also be highlighted.
'Following Murukan' is the practice of following the utsavaratha or century-old chariot through the financial district of Singapore prior to the day of lifting the kāvatis. The route is meaningful in its own right and has gone through different stages of alteration. The range of sacred and profane elements that sustain the dedication among the Singaporean devotees is also explored. A slide presentation of the three day ceremony is also included.
by P.S. Krishnan Iyer
The author first met Vallimalai Satchidananda Swamigal at Tiruttani, which for him represented the union of soul and body. Until his departure from earth on 22 November 1950, the author lived closely with him rendering him service and performing his errands.
In his article, he recalls interesting discussions with the Swami, giving insight into his philosophy, the mission of his life and also how he received such rare insights. His selection of songs for daily prayers, starting for each day of the week in a particular order from Sunday to Saturday is not only esoteric but based on principles of Yogasāstra - each day signifies a particular cakra in the body and on Saturday envelope all the six leading to sahasrara cakra.
Likewise he had formulated from the same source of Tiruppukal the Parāyana Kuntu form. He himself introduced a model of rendering the songs by ending with the line of appeal repeated with a prayer to Lord as a form of surrender seeking spiritual solace. He inducted farmers, uneducated village boys and girls, great scholars, and well-known musicians all into his fold.
The author's article covers Swami's personal discussions on these aspects with the present researcher during 1949-1950 and also his last twelve days in preparation for departure up to 22 November 1950 as well. The scholar also discusses the induction of Swami's powers finally in Shri Vaisnavi Devi on 13 January 1950 as his ista dēvatai Valli with the help of Swami Anvananda S. Parthasarathy (Swami Anvananda).
by Valayapettai Ra. Krishnan
Among Tamils, Murukan worship finds place of pride ever since the Cankam age. Tolkāppiyam, the ancient Tamil grammar, speaks elaborately about Murukan and His worship. Tirumurukārruppatai (c. 150 AD), a treatise exclusively on Murukan by the great Cankam poet Nakkirar, deals with six sacred abodes of Murukan in Tamil Nadu.
After Nakkirar, the Murukan cult did not receive much importance until the great saint Arunakirinātar, a contemporary of Bukka I (1335-1376 AD) of the Vijayanagar empire, gave fresh impetus. Arunakirinātar did not sing the glory of Murukan from an ivory tower. Even remote villages received the impact of his visit. His works are of an encyclopaedic nature dealing with all that is found in Murukan worship.
His Tiruppukal hymns inspired subsequent generations to worship Murukan and he was largely responsible for the proliferation of Murukan temples throughout Tamil Nadu. His songs are a source of inspiration for devotees of Murukan even today.
Arunakirinātar travelled extensively from the extreme south of this country to Kāshi. It is not possible to say in which order he visited the many places mentioned in his songs. From the available 1,330 Tiruppukal songs, he has worshipped and sung at 216 shrines. Out of 196 main Tiruppukal sthalas, 182 are in Tamil Nadu, 11 in other states and three places are in Sri Lanka.
This research focuses attention on the important shrines in which Arunakirinātar was blessed by Lord Murukan, for which internal evidence is available in Tiruppukal songs. Certain beautiful icons, rare forms of Subrahmanya and some interesting sociological trends seen in some shrines are described. Some of the names of places referred by him in Tiruppukal were changed now and in some places no temples exist due to natural calamities etc.
The sources of information for the above are drawn from personal visits to the respective temples and interviews with temple authorities, priests and elders.
by Vimala Krishnapillai
Skanda-Murukan is no exception to the Hindu ideal that the divine is immanent in all things. From prehistoric times the Vēl has received the adoration and worship of the Tamils as a sacred object. In the ancient Tamil Cankam period, we find reference to 'the powerful god dwelling in the Vēl'. Cilappatikāram speaks of Vellakottam, implying that Vēl was singled out and installed for worship and shrines were built around it.
Sri Lanka is an ideal source for the study of the indigenous Tamil traditions because of its geological and historical position. Infiltration of Aryan traditions was very slow and weak until Buddhism became the established religion of the country.
Old symbols never die. They persist in the ancestral memory and take on new meanings. The archetype of the Vēl symbol took on different meanings with time. To the hunting tribes the Vēl embodied the power that could pierce the quarry to provide sustenance. To the warring chieftains and kings the Vēl piercing the enemy represented valour and victory connoted by the names of TīraVēl and VerriVēl. Presently Vēl symbolizes jńānasakti (power of knowledge). Jńāna Vēl pierces ignorance (avidyā) and redeems man from delusion or māya$.
An attempt is made here is to understand the worship of the Vēl in the spiritual, sociocultural, psychological and anthropological aspects. The locus, origin, histories both mythical and documentary of the shrines, the indigenous forms of worship and local motifs associated with the shrines, the folk life and social setting in the areas surrounding the selected areas are examined.
by S. Krishnarajah
The Skanda myth as depicted in the various purānas and epics yields different readings in different contexts and its interpretation can be a rewarding experience. Myth, says Barthes, is a type of speech chosen by history that has to be defined by its intention which is more than its literal sense. The proposed study is an attempt to analyse the Skanda myth on the basis of a societal paradigm which is more or less satisfactory from the socio-philosophical point of view. In this paper are presented three different interpretations, namely: N®ānap Pirakācar, Capārattina Mutaliyār and Kamil Zvelebil along with the researcher's reading of the myth.
N®ānap Pirakācar interpreted the Skanda myth by the object of its message. Hence he considered it as a historical event and the hero of this myth as a historical personality. Capārattina Mutaliyār viewed it on a religious basis and argued for a metaphysical interpretation. On the other hand, Kamil Zvelebil seeks a permanent structure of the human mind in the Skanda myth and concludes that the purpose of this myth is to provide a logical model capable of overcoming a real human contradiction.
The Skanda myth per-se expresses the concurrence of god Skanda over his adversaries. Cūrapatuman and his asura brothers. The description of asuras and devas in the various literature emphasises the fact that they belong to different social groups with different cultic system with enmity toward each other. Matriarchal social patterns are observed chiefly among the asura culture, upon which patriarchal forms of devas set their imprint. Hence the meaning of the Skanda myth seems to be a mythological description of the victory of patriarchal authority of the devas over matriarchal system of asuras.
The thesis of this paper is centered on the above argument and the theoretical basis of this paper is provided by J.J. Bachofen (Myth, Religion and Mother Right) and Erich Fromm (The Forgotten Language).
by M. Kuruvammal
Murukan is a god of kurińci land in Cankam literature. Tolkāppiyam says Cēyōn mēya myvari ulakam ('Murukan is the god of the hill-land'). Perumpānārruppatai describes Murukan as Vellum pōrai valla Murukan (Murukan who wins the great war). Akam literature attests to the practice of adorning weapons of war and memorial stones with peacock feathers, which are symbols of Murukan.
Patirruppattu mentions the practice of offering sacrifice to ananku in case of failing to hit the prey while hunting. Ananku refers to anankutai Murukan kōttam. Narrinai explains the practice of sacrificing to an ananku named Murukan. Vēlan Veriyāttu explains how the natural force called Murukan becomes human temporarily. Vēlan Veriyāttu is an important part of the ritual to appease and exorcise spirits. Cankam literature thus shows that belief in ananku was predominant in Murukan worship. Kuruntokai, Puranānūru, Tolkāppiyam, Paripātal and Narrinai all testify to the existence of the concept of the spirit world and the impersonal concept of constructing an altar for the Veriyāttu.
Murukan worship in Cankam literature encompasses nature worship, spirit worship, totemic worship and ancestor worship. It should be noted that Vēlan figures in Cankam literature alongside Akavan Makal and Kattuvicci who participated as shamans in the worship of the Mother-deity. It is the hypothesis of this paper that later day participation of Vēlan as shaman is an indication of a shift from matrilineal social order to patrilineal social order.
by Gnanapurani Madhvanath
After Agastya Rishi who is said to have initiated the worship of Lord Murukan, Nakkirar of the second century A.D. is considered a great devotee as shown by his celebrated work Tirumurukārruppatai. After Nakkirar, it was Saint Arunakirinātar who was responsible for the resurrection of the Murukan cult in the Tamil country by means of his Tiruppukal and other compositions of devotion of Lord Murukan.
Tiruppukal as the name implies sings the glory of Lord Murukan. Composed six hundred years ago, it went into oblivion because of references to the lure of lust and vivid descriptions of lecherous women contained in it. However, the unique sweetness of the hymns, the variegated rhythmic patterns in their structure, the devotional aspects and the messages conveyed by them, brought them back to light. Since then, several scholars have researched Tiruppukal from various angles.
This article attempts to throw light on the circumstances which led to the rediscovery and publication of Tiruppukal by V.T. Subramania Pillai over a hundred years ago and the accelerated propagation of these songs by Vallimalai Sri Satchidananda Swamigal.
Subsequent to the publications by V.T. Subramania Pillai in 1895, research work was carried out by his son who also brought out commentaries on all the available compositions of Arunakirinātar under the title Muruka Vēl Panniru Tirumurai. This article also includes some details of the circumstances which led to the popularisation of Tiruppukal songs by Sri Vallimalai Sacchidananda Swamigal.
by Iravatham Mahadevan
There is clear pictorial evidence from seals and sealings for the practice of religion by the Harappans. The question whether any deity is prominently mentioned in their writing is explored in this paper.
The search for the possible occurrence of the name of a deity in the Indus script has to be based on the following criteria:
(a) A deity conceived to be human in form is more likely to be represented by an anthropomorphic ideogram than by syllabic writing;
(b) The ideogram will occur with high frequency, and with especially higher relative frequency in votive or dedicatory inscriptions in obvious religious contexts;
(c) The ideogram is likely to occur repetitively as part of fixed formulas possibly representing religious incantations.
It can be shown by frequency-distribution analysis that the only sign in the Indus script which satisfies all the criteria is No. 48 in the sign-list (The Indus Script, 1977). This sign depicts an anthropomorphic deity in the seated posture reminiscent of similar representations of anthropomorphic deities in the Egyptian hieroglyphic script. The two defining characteristics of the Harappan deity are:
(a) skeletal form with a prominent ribcage (denoting the spirit of the dead);
(b) folded lower limbs (denoting divinity).
The proposed identification is corroborated by a seal found at Kalibangan with a realistic depiction of the seated deity with a prominent rib cage.
The ideogram may be interpreted in Dravidian using the rebus method as *muruku. The proposed rebus is based on Dravidian homonyms with meanings corresponding to the two defining characteristics of the ideogram:
(a) to shrink, shrivel, wither, decay; to be old, ancient; and
(b) bending, contracting, folding (as limbs).
The skeletal deity seems pictorially to symbolise the manes (cf. Ta, pēy; Pkt. peya; Skt. preta) and probably originated from ancestor-worship. Traces of the demonic character of the deity survived in the conception of Muruku in the earliest Tamil literature. The deity's name may also be interpreted phonetically through rebus as 'destroyer, killer' who later evolved into a warrior-god.
The paper marshals pictorial and literary evidence from both Dravidian and Indo-Aryan sources for the survival and evolution of the symbolism associated with the Harappan deity in later art traditions and mythology.
by Marimuthu Vetanathan
Worship of Lord Murukan dates back to very early times, particularly in South India. The devotees of Lord Murukan have to their credit several poetic compositions on the Lord. All the compositions praise Him by various names and epithets. Among them the most notable are Tirumurukārruppatai composed by Nakkirar and Kantapurānam authored by Kacciyappacivācāriyar. Those two important Saiva works describe the origin of Murukan or Kantan and extrol his divine powers.
Tirumurukārruppatai ranks as the most popular poetic composition of the Cankam period. This work consists of 317 lines. It is also included in the 11th Tirumurai. Thus, it gets the literary as well as religious significance. According to A.L. Basham, it is the first Indian devotional literature. The devotees of Murukan are accustomed to recite this devotional lyric in their daily worship.
Kantapurānam occupies place of emienence in Saiva Literature. The work consists of 10345 four-line viruttam stanzas in six Kāntams (Books) in 141 chapters. This work describes the cult of Murukan and remains to be the bridge, that links Murukan and Kantan.
Although these two works belong to different periods there are many common aspects, ideas and myths, deserving an indepth study. It may be noted that Kacciyappacivācāriyar was well acquainted with Tirumurukārruppatai, which exerted a great influence on him.
The two literary religious works delineate the divine powers of Lord Murukan. His personality, and various names besides the methods of offering worship to Him and to His victorious weapon, Vēl i.e. lance.
The sixfold sacred abodes of Lord Murukan, commonly called Ārupataivitu are picturesquely portayed in Tirumurukārruppatai and also in the Kantapurānam. These are considered by some scholars to be war-camps of the Martial God Murukan. It seems that Ārru-p-pataivitu should some became Ārupataivitu. Though traditionally they are reckoned in the order; Parankunram, Ciralaivāy, Āvinankuti, Ērakam, Kunrutōrātal and Palamutircōlai, poets like Arunakirinātar subscribed to the concept of sixfold shrines, as mentioned in the Tirumurukārruppatai.
The attributes and epithets, the modes of worship, the legends associated with Murukan and His consorts, Valli and Teyvānai, His heroic activities, bestowal of grace etc. are to be studied on the common materials, unearthed from the aforesaid two religious works.
by Dr P. Marudanayagam
Kamil V. Zvelebil's Tamil Traditions on Subrahmanya-Murugan makes a primary mention of the widespread belief among the Saivites of Tamil Nadu that N®ānacampantar was an incarnation of Murukan, which almost exactly parallels the North Indian tradition that confers a similar honour on Kumarila Bhatta by considering him an avatar of Subrahmanya. It is surprising to note that in the Tēvāram there are only forty references to Murukan, most of which praise Shiva as the father of Kumaran or Cēntan or Katampan or Vēl or Kantan. What is more puzzling is that the Tēvāram hymns do not celebrate any of Murukan's temples even though Tirupparankunram and Tiruccentūr had been extolled in the earliest of Cankam texts.
The present paper re-examines the entire Shaiva canon including Tēvāram, Periyapurānam, Ālutaiya Pillaiyār Tiruvantāti, Tiruccanpai Viruttam, Tirumummanikkōvai, Tiruvulāmālai, Tirukkalampakam and Tiruttokai in order to give a cogent critical account of the belief tracing N®ānacampantar's divine descent from Skanda-Murukan.
R. Marudhamuthu
This research paper attempts to explore the hypothesis that Murukan had a more profound meaning and greater social relevance before the process of Sanskritisation gained in strength in Tamil Nadu and that the concept of justice formed the central aspect of the god as conceived by the ancient Tamils. The paper also aims at studying the impact of Sanskritisation on the god. Finally it will analyse the relevance of Murukan for modern Tamil society.
The period covered by the research corresponds to that in which the poems of Ettuttokai and Pattuppāttu were composed.
The general problem facing researchers in the study of Murukan during this period is that the scattered references in Tamil literature to him and his cult do not add up to a unified whole which will warrant the high place accorded to him throughout Tamil Nadu. The accretion of later, legendary material also tends to colour our perception of the god's original nature.
In an attempt to solve this problem, the researcher proposes to examine the literary evidence of the Cankam period relating to Murukan from the modern sociological and historical perspective.
The original Tamil texts of the Pattuppāttu and the Ettuttokai will be the main sources of the research, along with the Tamil Lexicon, A Word Index of Old Tamil Cankam Literature (Thomas Lehmann and Thomas Malten), and Canka Ilakiya Porutkalańciam (Tamil University, Tanjavur). Other books of reputed modern scholars will also be cited.
by M.J. Mohan, M.D.
Undoubtedly this topic is not only vast, but also vastly interesting as it is a journey from Kanyā Kumari to the Indus Valley and even beyond. It is exceptional in that it deals with anthropology, literature, history, mythology and sociology.
How and when Cēyōn mentioned in Tolkāppiyam had re-entered as Kantan (Skanda) into Tamil bhakti literature raises many questions. Controversies and contradictions exist as to when and how Murukan the god of Kurińci penetrated into other areas with other names to be worshipped in different forms in India and abroad. There are devotional songs attributed to peacock, spear and kāvati. It is uncommon to find such similar songs on any other gods even in Sanskrit literature.
According to unbiased researchers, Murukan is the embodiment of beauty, divinity, valour, everlasting youth and fragrance. In other ways, He reflects the beauty of nature and is portrayed as the Lord of Hillocks.
The Tamil language has its origin in Kumari continent, the first place of human habitation which was swallowed by ocean on three occasions, the last one occurring near Tiruccentūr, one of the Āru Patai Vitus. Tamil is the primary classical language which was nurtured and developed by three Cankams, the ancient academies of Tamil scholars.
Tolkāppiyam, the oldest grammar work authored by Tolkāppiyam after a thorough study of other works on Tamil grammar which existed in the previous Cankam age of vanished Kumari continent, mentions Cēyōn, i.e. Murukan as god of Kurińci. Hence it is clear that the Murukan cult had been practised even before Tolkāppiyar.
The eminent sage Akasthiyar had an opportunity to hear the inner meaning of pranava - Om - from Lord Murukan according to references available about the great Kurumuni.
This paper addresses many genuine doubts as to when pre-Aryan Tamil culture and Aryan culture embraced each other and what is the present result of their intermingling.
by N. Murugan (Cheyon)
Teyvamanimālai is one of the best contributions of Vallalār. It consists of 31 devotional poems. Each one may be considered as a diamond jewel adorning the Tamil god Lord Murukan at Kantakōttam in the heart of Chennai.
All the poems envisage the heroic deeds of Lord Murukan, describe the various aspects of Lord Murukan and detail the merits and demerits of good and evil things respectively. They also guide readers to develop their recitation capacity, meditating ability and devotional fervour. They also enlighten readers to promote their character, attitude, aptitude and behaviour.
Teyvamanimālai is really a 'mosaic of motivation'. If one starts reading it one will never leave it without finishing the whole book of 31 devotional poems. Each one conveys a number of ideas, advices, ways and means of achieving goals, etc. This will certainly dispel the darkness of ignorance and kindle the light of knowledge which in turn leads to greater happiness for the heart and soul of every human being.
Every person consciously or unconsciously asks himself, 'What is in it for me?' before engaging in any behaviour. Self-interest is the ultimate motivating force. If one's needs are fulfilled then one will be considered as a fully motivated person to achieve his goals.
The most widely accepted need classification scheme was proposed by Abraham Maslow over a quarter of century ago. His list of needs is convincingly short, yet covers most of the dimension that psychologists have found to be important. Maslow hypothesized that within every human being there exists a hierarchy of five needs. These needs are:
All these motivating aspects are spread over in Teyvamanimālai. All the motivating aspects overtly and covertly present in the devotional songs of Divine Garland. Teyvamanimālai will be brought to light by an analytical approach.
by V. Murugan
This paper focuses upon Murukan as a polysemantic cultural archetype of the Tamil mind during the pre-Sanskritic epoch in Tamil history.
Problem: The Murukan myth may be traced to the racio-cultural memory of the ancient Tamils and is examined as being informed by the secular socio-cultural milieu of the ancient Tamil country. It is also seen as reflecting the Cankam conception of human life as constituting two basic modes, viz., Akam and Puram, love and power. While Dr. Kamil V. Zvelebil convincingly establishes the indigenous, autochthonous nature of the pre-Aryan Murukan through his well-documented studies Tiru Murugan and Tamil Traditions on Subrahmanya-Murugan, the present study aims to be the first to examine the link between the thematic classification of literature and the structural patterns of the Murukan myth. It is also possibly the first of its kind in seeing the image of Murukan evolving into a polysemantic cultural symbol, attaining ultimately to the status of a cultural archetype.
The creation of Murukan in the image of Tamil life is informed by the ancient Tamil conception of the relationship between man and nature. Theirs is a hylozoistic vision, going far beyond animism and finding an organic connectedness, interaction and intercreativity between man and the circumambient universe. The personification of Murukan in his varied dimensions seems to be the natural offshoot of this vision. As such. Murukan as conceived by the Tamil mind is not a metaphysical, supernatural reality evolving from a religio-cultural ethos representing any transcendental abstract system such as the one of the Vedic Aryan culture, but rather an intuited, culturally ingrained symbol of Tamil culture, both lived and envisioned.
Another concern of this paper, the contemporary relevance and immediacy of which needs no emphasis, is to show Murukan as the native Tamil image and symbol of secular social life of the ancient Tamils. This reality is contrasted with the stratification of Tamil society along lines of religion and caste, and the representation of this social fragmentation in literature and other arts after the sixth century A.D. with the advent of the composite Sanskritic Murukan-Subrahmanya-Kārttikeya tradition.
There is a demonstrable nexus between the love-career of the Akam hero and heroine and the romance of Murukan and Valli in relation to their emotional behaviour and their nature backdrop. Similar is the conceptual correspondence between Murukan's war against Cūr and several of the principal puram thematic situations.
Methodology: The material is subjected to a totemic interpretation that informs thematalogical and culture studies.
Sources: The texts of the Cankam literary corpus including Tolkāppiyam, with references drawn from post-Cankam epics, and the main body of devotional literature form the primary data. Secondary sources include studies by Kamil V. Zvelebil and various literary and social histories of Tamil.
by Tiru Valluratimai Muruku
The paper attempts to establish that originally Murukan did not have two wives, Valli and Teyvānai. Instead it was believed then that he was wedded to Valli alone. This hypothesis is sought to be proved by citing from Tolkāppiyam, the Cankam works and the epics like Cilappatikāram and Cintāmani. References are made to Tēvāram also. The archaeological findings of Āriccanallūr and other kinds of archaeological material have also been used as sources for the research.
The paper thus attempts to view the myths of Murukan with regard to his married status from a new angle.
by Nellai S. Muthu
Scope: Astronomy combined with sociology yields mythical cosmology. This research focuses upon the origin and evolution of the cult of Murukan, the son of cosmological Shiva-Shakti. Mythological development of Murukan from Vēlan - Sanmukha - Kārttikeya - Skanda can be ascribed to the Indian conception of the planet Mercury. The planet Mercury has the extreme temperate limits of hot and cold. Moreover the planet appears only at dawn or at dusk. The nature of the planet has introduced later a mythological perception of Murukan as one at the middle of the bright and fair: Teyvānai and the dark hill-girl Valli. The research as such is thus oriented towards the myths that prevailed during the prehistoric era with a special reference to the forgotten, otherwise the untold mysteries of the tribal based Dravidian Indians.
Problems the research addresses: The analysis throws light on the striking similarities between linguistic families. In the Cankam period, Vēlan veriyātturai is a typical rite performed by the ancient Tamils. Cankam literature refers to 'furious Murukan'. Later Vēlan and Murukan merged together.
Methodology: By drawing upon data from independent sources, results are confirmed. The Assyrians assigned the planet Mercury to the god Nabu which means 'herald'. A major turning point occurred during seventh century B.C. when all over the world almost all Indo-Iranian languages were written from left to right. In Greek mythology, Hermes was the son of Zeus (Shiva) and Maia (Uma), the eldest sister in the starry Pleiades (Krttikā). It is again the same reference to Murukan. In the purānas, Murukan sent his military chieftain Virabahu as an ambassador (Skt: dūta) to his enemy Cūra Patuman. In Egyptian mythology the fleet-footed god Mercury is known as Thoth.
Sources of Information: The works of scholars like V.I. Subramaniam, Asko Parpola, Iravatham Mahadevan, Natana Kasinathan, Philip E. Ross, A. Pannekoek, Debiprasad Chattopadyay, E.C. Krupp and Isac Taylor are cited.
S. Muthu Chidambaram
This paper examines trends in Murukan worship during the second half of 20th Century in southern Tamil Nadu.
Scope of the Study: Among the six patai vitu (camps of Murukan) four of them are situated in the southern districts of Tamil Nadu. Moreover, Murukan worship is more common in this area with a large number of temples established with Murukan as the primary deity. As a result, this study is limited to the southern part of Tamil Nadu. India is characterised by rapid changes both in material conditions and value systems especially after independence. Hence the time frame of this study is restricted to the past five decades.
Objectives: This study tries to identify the forces that work behind Murukan worship and also the changes that ere are taking place in it. This study also tries to view if such changes go along with the general trends taking place with regard to the worship of other major deities in Tamil Nadu or if they are unique to Murukan worship.
Research Methodology: This study is made from the perspective of Murukan devotees. It is qualitative in nature. Since religion is primarily based on faith, the author relies more on the materials collected from personal life experiences of Murukan devotees. In order to study the changes over the past fifty years, Murukan devotees who had been participating in various activities of Murukan worship over a period of time form the primary respondents for this study. Case studies are used to trace the changes taking place over a period of time.
Sources of Information: Materials collected from Murukan devotees form the main source of data. Moreover, materials were collected from temple authorities, priests, officials in transport and other departments, shop owners and others who were directly associated with various activities related to Murukan worship. Published materials were used as supplementary data.
by I. Muthuramalingam
Man is in need of the attributes of knowledge, power and loving mercy. Possession of these can raise a man to the status of divinity. Tiruvalluvar has pointed to this possibility of attaining to godliness.
Murukan combines in himself the qualities of a god and those of a human being. He is the great god of the Tamils as well as the true representative of their culture.
With the infusion of Sanskritic culture in Tamil Nadu, several puranic versions of the birth of Murukan as an eternal god who knew no birth came into vogue.
Murukan's stealthy courtship of Valli accords well with the kalavu theme of ancient Tamil Literature. This was misunderstood in the northern tradition and led to the association of Kumāra (Murukan) with the act of stealing as referred to in Mirucca Katikaru.
The spear of Murukan is symbolic of knowledge. Murukan threw this spear at his enemy Cūran and left him into two. Then the two pieces were transformed into a cock and a peacock which Murukan adopted for himself as his banner and vehicle respectively. Thus he showed himself to be both valiant and merciful. His marriage with Valli shows that caste inequalities are of no account. His having two wives shows a cultural synthesis of Aryan and Dravidian elements. In the form of an ascetic at Palani he teaches the need for self-restraint and detachment even for a house-holder's life. Thus Murukan is a great conjoiner of different things and stands for the unity of the Tamil people.
by M. Muthuswami
This paper is a study of Chinnappa Thevar's film career including four of his films which deal exclusively with Murukan. Thevar introduced Krupananda Variyar to Tamil film audiences while depicting beautiful films and film songs about Murukan which are cherished even today. Despite his success, Thevar lived a life of simplicity while donating crores of rupees to the development of Murukan temples across Tamil Nadu. His timely contribution helped to counter anti-religious elements which were on the rise at the time of Thevar's film career.
by M.S. Nagarajan
As its title indicates, the Kumārasambhavam of Mahākavi Kālidāsa tells the story of the origin of the young god Kārttikeya. The eight cantos narrate the story of the union of Shiva and Pārvati. The epic begins with the king of the Himālayas allowing his daughter to wait upon and worship Shiva and ends with the conjugal love of the divine couple. Pārvati's marriage to Shiva is ordained by the gods, for the warrior-child of the union - Kumāra/Skanda/Kārttikeya - is to destroy the asura Tāraka and liberate gods and humanity from bondage.
Though Skanda is not physically present in the poem - he is not yet born - he is its epicentre. He is the leader who safeguards the armies of the gods, a commander who will dispel the evil forces. Kumārasambhavam is about the emergence of the offspring of the union, the war-god Kārttikeya. The paper presents how the procreation of Kārttikeya occurs.
Source: The Kumārasambhavam eight sargas form the primary source material for this paper. Other sources in Tamil such as the Kanta Purānam and related myths and cultural representations are also utilised as supporting evidence.
Methodology: Primarily the new critical method of textual analysis is resorted to. Close examination and analyses of relevant shlokas are made where they are references to cosmic forces of destruction and war. Interpretation of image clusters and myths are used to strengthen the basic thesis.
A new historicist approach is also employed in one section of the paper. Cultural representations of Kārttikeya in literary and non-literary texts are taken up to illustrate how collective beliefs and experiences get appropriated and shaped into art forms and other contiguous forms of expression.
by Maheshvari Naidu
Scope: This paper will seek to explore the basis of Murukan worship among the South Indian Hindu community of South Africa. A preliminary literature review reveals that not much research in South Africa has focused on the pervasiveness of the worship to this deity. This paper will attempt to argue that within the context of the south Indian religious community of South Africa, the deity Subrahmanya Swāmi, as the god is popularly referred to by the local devotees, is understood within the context of divine reciprocity.
The research universe is delimited to the notion of this relationship of reciprocity that the devotee shares with her god. Divine reciprocity is itself, within this paper understood in the religious promise to carry the kāvati, a promise that is actualisation of the vow taken by the devotee. The god incarnates the notion of power that is able to transcend the existential difficulties of the devotees. In other words Murukan is seen as the metaphor for overcoming one's problem. The devotee in turn reciprocates by carrying the kāvati.
While being wider than the festival of kāvati, the worship of Murukan in South Africa is mainly articulated within the ritual enactment of kāvati. The paper is written evocatively and attempts to capture the essence of the god's power which is experientially comprehended by the devotees. This evocative narrative will attempt to capture the emic perspective of the insider and her privileged religious understanding of her god. The paper will also attempt to utilise the 'script' of visual texts which are the visually arrested images of the god in his sacred centres of worship, and that of his local devotees.
Sources of information are thus the empirical data collected from fieldwork. Textual references serve as supplementary to the raw 'text' that writes itself in the field. Some of these images will in turn be presented in the form of slides, the use of which will be woven into the fabric of the paper.
Methodology: The study will be located within a phenomenological framework and will use the methods of participation observation. Situating itself within the field of action research as developed by reason et. al., the research also draws from personal experience methods-firmly believing that the ethnograhic observer cannot remain aloof from her research subjects. The paper will ultimately assume the shape of an ethnographic narrative and will attempt to give voice to the stories of the people themselves, and the stories that the people tell about themselves, as the bhaktas of their katavul Murukan.
by Deva. Natarajan
Undoutedly, the ancient god of the Tamils is Murukan. Murukan represents the bliss and beauty of Nature in its most pure and unpolluted form. The one word in Tamil which represents all high attributes and qualities and youthfulness is Muruku. From the stand-point of Shaiva-Siddhānta, Murukan and Civan are one and the same, just as Shakti and Civan, are one and the same and Lord Ganapati and Civan are one and the same.
The objective of this paper is to present evidence to support the aforesaid philosophical position, which is based on the premises of Shaiva-Siddhānta that there is only one Supreme Being "Paracivam" (TWŁYm ) and all other deities are Its manifestations exhibiting different ideologies.
by Kandiah Neelakandan
by S. Nilamegame
In the island of Reunion, the overseas French dependency in the Indian Ocean, 6,00,000 inhabitants live under the protection of the French. It is an island where different races meet together, including Chinese, Africans, Muslims, Europeans and Indians.
Tamils came to Reunion 200 years ago or more. They brought their religious cult of beloved Murukan as well as other cults including a number of godesses like Kāli, Māri and Draupadi. In each town a temple is found in the name of Siva Subrahmanya, such as found in the towns of St. Denis, St. Andre, St.Paul and St. Pierre.
Tamil people here have long been celebrating festivals. For example, Tamil devotees of St. Andri take kāvati during Taippūcam when all the Tamil devotees of Reunion go to St. Andri. Then, if the devotees of St. Paul are organising Vaikāci vicākam kāvati, all the Tamil devotees of Reunion go to St. Paul. Each town takes part in all the festivals so as to strengthen their solidarity and religious love. All the devotees of the island gather together in one place to worship Lord Murukan.
Other festivals of Lord Murukan are also organised, for example Kanta Casti, the marriage of Murukan etc. Devotees continue to take kāvati during the great festivals such as taippūcam, vicākam, āvani mūlam etc. On these days devotees express their love for god and dance in ecstasy.
by Pala Palaniappan
Tirumurukārruppatai is a Cankam text sung by Nakkirar, a renowned poet of that era. Tirumurukārruppatai is considered to be a revolutionary addition to the Tamil literary field, since this is the first devotional work on the cult of Murukan worship.
This paper attempts, by adopting the method of renovision, to present Tirumurukārruppatai as revolutionary devotional literature. Renovision is a scientific method denoting the ability to see beyond the obvious.
Arruppatai is a genre of Tamil literature, wherein a poet who received a fortune from the king, guides another towards the king to alleviate his sufferings. Nakkirar uses this genre to guide human beings to Lord Murukan to get what one aspires for. In this process he praises the six abodes of Murukan and narrates the rituals performed by the devotees in those places.
This is what one perceives to be the apparent tenor of the Tirumurukārruppatai. Nakkirar is great scholar and savant who has composed these verses not merely to get him out of the captivity of the demons in Parankunram as the legend goes, but also to guide the world to get what one aspires. He is a seer who has the vision to look into things invisible. He deals with devotees of different kinds and in particular those of high intellectual pursuit and the common man who is at the depths of ignorance. The former is elaborately dealt in Tiruvāvinankuti and Tiruvērakam verses and the second, in Kunrutōrātal and Palamutircōlai verses.
It is normally construed so far in all the commentaries that one who undertakes a pilgrimage, moving physically to these six abodes, will attain salvation. If we see in the real light of Nakkirar's scholarly rendering with a new vision, it is the self which has to, by overcoming the senses, move above the sensually controlled body, through the different areas of the human system viz. from annamaya kōsha to ānandamaya kōsha.
by P. Pandian
Scope of the research: The research addresses the method adopted by our seers in the perception of truth. The truth is only one and it is beyond comprehension. How was it possible for cittars to comprehend the incomprehensible? The same perception of differed from that of other seers in other societies. How do visible symbols used by our seers approximate the portrayal of truth? The research seeks to establish that the perception of truth or reality which is Brahman is the fructuscent substance of building block of the universe which runs through and through like warp and roof of a texture with plan, precision, pattern, regularity and grandeur.
Problems the research addresses : The research aims to establish the veracity of the method adopted by sages which is handed down from perceptor to the disciple in successive lineage. Murukan worship appears to be paganistic, with hundred of rituals which confuse the modern mind. This paper seeks to dispel such doubts and establish a clear link from one to the other.
Methodology : While the author is not averse to the modern scholastic approach he follows the traditional method of intuition as taught to him by his perceptor Dr. Jyoti Valayapathi Siddhar Swamigal, M.A., L.R.C.P. (Vienna) who lived upto 118 years. He penance at the foot of Potihai hills.
Sources of Information: Information has been culled from Cankam literature and verses from Tirumūlar and Arunakirinātar. Citations may also be taken from original works.
by A. Pandurangan
Tolkāppiyar declares Cēyōn, the Red one, as the god of Kurińci, the hill tract; he is Murukan whose colour, dress and favourite flowers are red in colour. In the Cankam anthologies Murukan's priest, the Vēlan, performs ritual dance, veriyātal. Maids also participate in the dance with the Vēlan. Tēvarātti, a priestess also conducts ritual worship to Murukan.
Tirumurukārruppatai, the first poem in the Ten (long) Poems, is entirely devoted to the cult of Murukan. Paripātal narrates the birth of Murukan based on Sanskrit mythologies. He is said to be the commander-in-chief of the forces of devas against asuras. He marries Teyvānai, the daughter of Indra and Valli, the daughter of a chieftain of the hills.
The eighth century commentary of Iraiyanār Akapporul declares that Uruttiracanman is an incarnation of Murukan. The legends of Tamil Cankam describe Murukan as one of its members. Later purānas describe Nakkiran as a staunch devotee of Murukan. His punishment by Shiva for the famous poem konku tēr vālkkai has to be interpreted on this backround.
Saint Tiruńānacampantar is described as an avātar of Murukan. It is to be remembered that this saint conducted a ruthless compaign against the Jains. The conflict between Shiva and Murukan is inferred by the stories of Poyyāmoli and Avvaiyār. It is also said that Murukan taught the meaning of piranava to Shiva. This may point out a dichotomy between Shiva and Murukan because some of the aspects of Shiva can be traced to Vēdic Rudra whereas none such can be found for Murukan in the Vedas.
When the Tamils were under the rule of the Muslims, they yearned for liberation under a powerful leader just like the Jews yearned for their leader to liberate them. The rule of the Kannatikās and the Andhrā ended Muslim supremacy; still the Tamils longed for a powerful leader from their own cultural background. They could choose only Murukan, just as the Telugu people chose Hanumān, the unconquerable warrior for freeing them from Muslims. The songs of Arunakiri and the epic Kanta purānam vividly describe this Tamilian ideology.
by Asko Parpola
If the Harappans spoke Dravidian, they probably worshipped Muruku. This deity is prominent in ancient Tamil Nadu and (as Rudra/Skanda) in early North India as well.
Several Indus signs may express different names of Muruku. Thus the 'horned or wi